5 Abnormal Psychology Case Studies That Are Worth Your AttentionÂÂ

If you find people remotely interesting (and who doesn’t), you probably find unusual patterns of behavior and conditions such as schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder somewhat fascinating. For psychology students, these topics in abnormal psychology are particularly interesting. Behaviors that are statistically deviant have long been a point of interest in psychology, and the ability to understand unusual behaviors, emotions and thoughts is the work of specialists in this field. Most psychology students study abnormal psychological conditions in terms of the patterns and behaviors associated with each one. Short case-studies may be used; however for a more profound understanding of these conditions, a deeper look into the cases is necessary. One excellent source used for this purpose is Case Studies in Abnormal Psychology, 9th Edition. Written by four professors, each case outlines the events leading up to the patient initiating therapy, the patient’s family and social history, the treatment, the discussion of the condition and etiological considerations. These in depth cases make excellent options for psychology students looking for some data to include in essays and presentations. There are five cases in particular that are worth looking into: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Rape Trauma This case study tells the story of a young woman who was raped by a TA of a class she was taking at university. PTSD has been a more recent topic in abnormal psychology and, thus, is of a particular interest for students looking to contribute to the field. Furthermore, the case considers issues important to women such as the reactions of people in her social network and her ability to make decisions regarding reporting the rapist, etc. Hypertension in an African American Man This case is particularly interesting due to the etiological and treatment implications since the patient was African American. The patient struggled to deal with pressure and the desire for success and perfection, resulting in a serious condition. The patient also expressed struggles of being a black man in a largely white man’s world, especially at the time of the study. Difficulties of difference of the race between the therapist and patient are discussed. Major Depressive Disorder This case is particularly interesting as explanations for gender differences are discussed considering this disorder. In this case study a woman’s struggle with depression is outlined along with the causes including grief and sadness over the loss of a marriage and stressful events, which particularly affect women. Parasomnia: Nightmare Disorder and Isolated Sleep Paralysis Sleep disorders are also relatively new to abnormal psychology, and an interesting case in an area that has not yet been researched very deeply proves it. This area has received more attention recently due to the large number of people affected by sleep disorders. Paranoid Personality Disorder This area of abnormal psychology hasn’t been heavily researched, making this case study an interesting and helpful one for students looking to understand more about this disorder. This case study outlines the life of a man who exhibits a paranoid personality disorder, but doesn’t complete the therapy which is typical of people who exhibit these behaviors.Use these case studies to make your writing more proficient and interesting at the same time. After all, your professors are usual people who want to read juicy papers with challenging facts. So, while writing, think about them too.

Rhetorical Analysis Of Martin Luther King Jr. - 976 Words

Martin Luther King Jr. wrote numerous speeches in efforts to inspire the idea of non-violent protesting in hopes of eventually reaching racial equality. Under what conditions can a man with seemingly no connection to a local community step in and assume the mantle of leadership as a spokesman for a segment of that community’s population? In all of the speeches, one way or another, Dr. King used several different rhetorical devices in order to defend his own actions. In specific, two of his speeches, â€Å"I have a Dream† and â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail† Dr. King used the rhetorical devices of anaphora, allusion, and diction to relay his thoughts of what is right, and also as a way to build a common ground with his audience. Though the rhetorical devices are shared between the two speeches, there are also several differences. The main difference between the two speeches is that in â€Å"I have a Dream† Dr. King is vocalizing his own ideas for wh at could become of the United States of America. In â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail† Dr. King is responding to the clergymen’s letter regarding his braking of the law. The rhetorical devices as well as the speeches are similar, while the audience is the factor that changes the premise. In the speech â€Å"I have a Dream† Dr. King’s uses the rhetorical device of anaphora several times. The first time, Dr. King implores the audience to seize the moment by saying â€Å"Now is the time†¦Ã¢â‚¬  four times in the sixth paragraph. His second use ofShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Analysis Of Martin Luther King Jr.1046 Words   |  5 PagesRhetorical Analysis Essay Civil rights activist, Martin Luther King Jr. gave his memorable â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech while standing at the feet of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. His uplifting speech is one of the most admired during the civil rights era and arguably one of the best in American history. On August 28th, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. spoke about the true American dream: equality. Although the video of his oral spectacle is powerful, the written document portrays exactly howRead MoreThe Rhetorical Analysis Of Martin Luther King Jr.1139 Words   |  5 Pagesuse rhetorical devices and strategies to get their point across and try to convince the reader to believe in their perspective. It can also be used to get emotions from its readers, but that isn’t really the whole point of persuading someone. For instance, Martin Luther King Jr. uses an abundance of pathos in order to make the reader or clergymen feel sympathy towards the black people. Along with pathos, he uses lo gos and a bundle of hypophora. In order to obtain the goal of persuasion, Martin LutherRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Martin Luther King Jr847 Words   |  4 PagesMartin Luther King Jr and The Civil Rights Movement Martin Luther King Jr was a protestor who became the most important spokesperson and leader in the Civil Rights Movement.  He was a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) and in 1954, he decided to take a position as a preacher at Dexter Avenue Church in Montgomery, Alabama. King felt as though it was his moral duty to help the civil rights movement which is why he planned many activities that will helpRead MoreThe Rhetorical Analysis Of Martin Luther King Jr.728 Words   |  3 Pages Martin Luther King Jr. gives this speech on September 28, 1965. This time period was the heart of the Civil Rights movement in America. Slaves received their freedom at the end of the Civil War, in 1865. However, the battle for former slaves did not end there. While they may have earned their freedom, there was still a long road ahead to achieving equality. Martin Luther King Jr., was a Civil Rights activist and speaker. In this speech, he talked not only abo ut what has been accomplished, but aboutRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Martin Luther King Jr1689 Words   |  7 PagesMartin Luther King Junior is often known as the leader of African American civil rights in the United States. His infamous â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech brought a crowd of over two hundred and fifty thousand people to the steps and lake of the Lincoln Monument in Washington D.C. In 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. led a protest in Birmingham, Alabama that focused on the unfair treatment and the segregation of African Americans. The court ruled that he was not allowed to hold protests. Therefore, he was arrestedRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Martin Luther King Jr. Essay1996 Words   |  8 PagesIn 1963 Martin Luther King Jr. wrote a letter while incarcerated in Birmingham jail to eight clergymen in response to their letter known as â€Å" A Call For Unity.†   The letter asked for the halt of direct action type protest in Birmingham, Alabama that Martin Luther King was leading.   The letter has become known as one of the greatest works of argument in American history. Part of the reason for the letter’s notoriety and effectiveness is due to its eloquent use of pathos. King’s use of pathos in hisRead MoreThe Rhetorical Analysis Of Reverend Martin Luther King Jr.764 Words   |  4 PagesWhile sitting in a jail cell, Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. uses this time of reflection to write a letter to the 7 white church leaders in the south in rebuttal to their recent criticisms of the Civil Rights Movement. The letter comes after the recent protest in Birmingham, and the criticisms of his work form the Southern leaders. King crafts his argument in a cause and effect style to illustrate the direct problems or criticisms, and refutes these claims with substantial support in favor of hisRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.769 Words   |  4 Pagesactivists in the nation such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. After his assassination, people took their grief to the public and called for acts of violence to deal with the sudden loss. As their anger continued to rise, Cesar Chavez published an article, in which he urged people to com e to their senses and take a less violent approach to the situation. Chavez states that only through nonviolence will people continue to strive towards the peace that they and Dr. King have so long looked forward to. HeRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Martin Luther King Jr. s I Have A Dream 1132 Words   |  5 PagesMartin Luther King Jr. was the man who wrote the speech entitled â€Å"I have a dream† and presented it to nearly 250,000 people on August 23, 1963. In that speech, MLK Jr. used several different types of figurative language/rhetorical devices in order to convey his message to the people on a deeper level. These devices include personification, allusion, symbolism, hyperbole, metaphor, simile, and anaphora. Personification is a form of figurative language in which something has nonhuman human qualitiesRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of I Have A Dream Speech By Martin Luther King Jr.815 Words   |  4 PagesMemorial more than two score years ago, Dr. Martin Luther King electrified America with his momentous I Have a Dream speech. Aimed at the entire nation, King’s main purpose in this speech was to convince his audience to demand racial justice towards the mistreated African Americans and to stand up together for the rights afforded to all under the Constitution. To further convey this purpose more effectively, King cleverly makes use of the rhetorical devices — ethos, pathos and logos — using figurative

The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles Free Essays

string(75) " in nature fostering teamwork and seeking group consensus \(Lewis, 2001\)\." With globalisation and related intensification of trade and commerce effective leadership has become indispensable in the business world. Where traditionally the business leader took the role of commanding â€Å"the troops† towards effectiveness and efficiency this has changed dramatically over the last decades. The service industry rise, knowledge management trends, increased workforce diversity combined with international trading and global sourcing of talent, has considerably reshaped the role of the leader in the contemporary organisation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles or any similar topic only for you Order Now Numerous firms are in global alliances depending upon flexibility/adaptability to local markets, requiring their managers to possess appropriate leadership styles to cope effectively with different value systems and cultures (Fahy, 2002; Coviello et al., 1998). Arguably, the flattening of hierarchical structures has also contributed to this reshaping process as traditional sources of authority, upon which leaders have built on for years, have been diminished. Combined with the rise of new trading powers such as the â€Å"Asian Dragon†, business leaders, especially in international MNEs do not only face domestic multiculturalism and diversity but are also increasingly expatriated. Consequently completely new cultural pitfalls and challenges are faced requiring understanding of cultural values as well as quick cultural adaptation to transfer domestic leadership abilities into foreign markets. Combined with steadily rising competitive pressures, the contemporary business leader in a role not easily filled. Despite leadership being a universal concept (Bass, 1990), with most literature anchored in the (individualistically oriented) US, it has been questioned to what extend western leadership styles are cross-culturally transferable (Dorfman, 2003). Resultantly, debate has sparked over how far leadership is culturally contingent, if universal leadership qualities and tactics exist and what the explanatory variables are (Scandura Dorfman, 2004). This assignment aims at contributing towards this debate by exploring leadership disparity and possible congruence between the UK and Japan using academic measurement of national culture; Hofstede’s framework respectively. The next section will give an overview over the concept of leadership followed by an in-depth cultural comparison and concluding section. The term leadership incorporates some elements of controversy over its meaning and practices. Different cultural gist or terminology or in cross-cultural contexts makes a universal definition difficult (Yukl, 2002). This seems unsurprising as the understandings and expectations of authority roles differ between cultures. Nevertheless, despite cultural differences the majority of leadership definitions reflect some basic elements these manly being â€Å"group†, â€Å"influence† and â€Å"goal† (Bryman, 1992). Keeping this in mind, leadership can be seen as the â€Å"process of influencing others towards achieving some kind of desired outcome.† (De Jong Den Hartog, 2007, p. 44) or bluntly spoken â€Å"leadership is the ability to get [people] to do what they don’t like to do and like it† (Truman in Sadler, 2003, p. 5). Whilst this is a very basic attempt of a definition it allows for easier application in a cross-cultural context and highlights an important point: In order to lead one needs followers (Drucker, 2007). It is here where the inseparable link to power emerges whereby the power of leaders is largely dependent upon the perception of others (Hollander Julian, 1969; Maurer Lord, 1991; Pfeffer, 1977) but nevertheless forms the basis of leadership authority. It appears that only effective use of this power, combined with â€Å"leading by example† (Pfeffer, 1981) will result in positive and proactive guidance fostering creativity, innovation, commitment and long term organisational development. However, this is questionable and it seems that far too often in academic literature the terms â€Å"manager† and â€Å"leader† are merged giving a blurred picture of what each role actually entails. Readers should be reminded that leaders, unlike managers, do not have to rely on forms of power to influence subordinates, often actually relinquishing formal authoritarian control. This is due to the idea that to lead is to have followers, and following is always a voluntary activity. Nevertheless, it can be argued that even leaders need some foundation of authority; may it only be their charisma (Weber, 1968). This has been manifested in the participative, charismatic or transformative styles of leadership (Den Hartog Koopman, 2001) as oppose to the transactional style more related to operational, task focused  managers. Especially in western economies with predominant service industries, innovation and knowledge management, the former have been the focal point in recent years as autocratic leadership styles do no longer seem sufficient to extract the full potential of an increasingly knowledgeable, highly skilled and demanding workforce. Such, arguably â€Å"softer† approaches fostering employee involvement and participation have nevertheless been proven to result in increased organisational performance (Bass, 1996; 1997; House Shamir, 1993) and are arguably more â€Å"ideal† forms of organisational leadership (Bass Avolio, 1989). This might be applicable to western societies yet a cross-cultural generalisation might be prejudiced and the influence of personal values and cultural influences upon leadership styles should not be ignored (Byrne Bradley, 2007). Rather, culture, an essential component of which is personal values (Kroeber, 1952; Kluckhohm, 1949), is to be seen at a centre stage when analysing leadership differences (George et al., 1998; Nakata Sivakumar, 1996; Steenkamp et al., 1999; Cadogan et al. 2001), as t is â€Å"the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another† (Hofstede, 1980, p. 260) and shape leadership preferences. Culture hereby should not be limited to national culture but has to be extended to incorporating organisational as well as political culture (Schein, 1985), the latter two arguably being extensively shaped by the former. Democratic or authoritarian political systems, national values regarding sex differences and ethical behaviour as well as organisational attitudes towards factors such as centralisation and work attitude, undoubtedly influence leadership styles. Not only will such factors shape leadership approaches, but with regard to cultural differences these will often even stand in conflict to each other. Consequently domestically implemented leadership approaches might not be applicable in other cultural settings and render ineffective in maintaining firm sustained competitive advantage and superior international performance (Kimber, 1997; Jackson and Aycan, 2001; Pfeffer, 2002). The next section will investigate the effect of cultural values upon leadership styles in detail using the U and Japan as examples. British leadership style has often been described as more casual in nature fostering teamwork and seeking group consensus (Lewis, 2001). You read "The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles" in category "Leadership" As such, a more participative leadership style is predominant reflecting flatter hierarchical structures in UK organisations. So, hierarchical structures not primarily seem as means to establish authority structures (Laurent, 1983) but more as core administrative frameworks. This according to Hofstede (2001), is a reflection of the UK’s low association to Power Distance. Essentially, subordinates do not attribute much to position and title and leaders must â€Å"embody a collective will and take personal responsibility for it while continuing to communicate and co-operate with the team† (Mole, 1990, p. 105). Unsurprisingly, networking capability and people management skills are highly valued in the UK (Stewart et al. 1994) as leadership qualities. Nevertheless, this (collectivist) team and people orientation is mainly seem as a path towards achieving organisational targets and innovation assuring individuals in team settings aggregate knowledge that has strategic relevance to the organisation (Miller Morris, 1999). As such transformational leadership attitudes (Burns, 1978) can be seen where leaders are to create conditions under which subordinates devotedly contribute to the organisation yet this is done primarily through a strategic lens. (McCarthy, 2005). Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon system of shareholder satisfaction drives leaders towards task orientation often combined with a short-term outlook. As such quick, short-term organisational (financial) success is often more valued than long-term organisational success and relationship building, reflecting according to Hofstede, a culture of highly short term orientation and low uncertainty avoidance. Essentially, risks are seen as part of daily business practice and leadership approaches reflect that subordinates are given opportunity to implement potentially rewarding, but high risk, strategies. This shows that, despite team orientation and a one might say more relaxed, friendly and diplomatic leadership style, the British cannot deny their American leadership style influence, fostering structured individualism, speed and drive (Lewis, 2001). Falsely, m any authors seem to  ignore this connection, even so influences of hire and fire mentality and the creating of specialist roles underlining a core individualistic attitude are undeniable reflecting British national, and interlinked to that, legal and organisational culture. Such individualistic attitude constantly resurfaces in leadership styles often portrayed through individual target setting, remuneration practices and shorter employment contracts. Employees do not look for lifetime employment and a steady career in one company resultantly British leaders are more reluctant to invest heavily in the training and education of subordinates (Schneider Littrell, 2003). This continues to the often actively sought after and purposely created assertive and competitive environment amongst colleagues or departments reflecting a relatively high masculine attitude as Hofstede’s culture scale clearly outlines. While these attributes sketch general aspects of British leadership, styles will vary between organisations, industries and individuals. Service- or RD intensive industries for example, will follow a more Theory Y (McGregor, 1960) approach fostering employee involvement and empowerment. Leadership on traditional manufacturing industries on the other hand due to their reliance on productivity and output combined with an often repetitive working atmosphere, might take a more Theory X attitude. In contrast to the UK, Japanese leadership, like many Asian countries, is grounded in Confucian principles (Redding, 1990; Tan, 1986) and despite rising western influences, strong Confucian traits believing in moral, interpersonal relationships/loyalties, education and hard work still lurk beneath the surface (Lewis, 2001). Especially â€Å"taking the family as a model for society at large, Confucianism is basically authoritarian and stresses hierarchical and status differences† (Selmer, 2001, p. 8). As such, through its vertically orientated hierarchies and rigid organisation (Chen, 1995) one would expect Japan to score higher than the UK in Hofstede’s power distance index, and so indeed it does. This offers leaders with traditional and legitimate power bases however, surprisingly not resulting in autocratic leadership styles as one would expect, but far more the association of assertiveness-authority and reason tactics (Schmidt Yeh, 1992). As such, Japanese leadership style rewards subordinate respect and obedience with highly paternalistic attitudes, expressed by mendou: â€Å"I think about your, I will take care of you† (Dorfman et al. 1997). Consequently, the Japanese leadership culture, despite placing emphasising hierarchy and status differences requiring full subordinate obedience, expects helping and caring for followers and being involved in their personal lives (Whitehall Takezawa, 1968; Bass et al. 1979). As a result the most powerful force of the Japanese leader is not autocracy but charisma combined with intrinsic rather than extrinsic (materialistic) reward mechanisms often predominant in the UK: bonuses, on-target-earnings, etc. (Maslow, 1943, 1954). This seems surprising considering the high masculine score, which, from a western perspective would result in autocratic, top down, assertive, tough and focused on material success (Hofstede, 1998) leadership. It is here where Hofstede’s framework seems to only partly explain the Japanese culture and low individualism but high masculinity and power distance stand in conflict with each other. Additionally, in such an environment more focus towards ascription rather than achievement would be expected (Trompenaars Hampden-Turner, 1997, 2000). Nevertheless, the contrary appears in the Japanese context with leaders having to possess superior, often specific, (hard) knowledge supplemented by strong educational backgrounds (Nestler, 2008). Here another disparity to UK leadership emerges, where despite educational background being important for initial work placement, greater focus upon (soft) â€Å"people skills† and strategic directive is desired and ascription of leadership positions remains (Hampden-Turner Trompenaars, 1994). The collectivist principles shape Japanese leadership style dramatically, requiring group consensus and decision-making despite extremely high masculinity and higher power distance. Essentially a â€Å"bottom-up† (ringsho) process of decision-making is chosen (Wu, 2006) with the leader granting independent decision making to the group generally letting subordinates use their own approaches to achieve overall collectivist objectives (Dorfman et al. 1997). This is surprising, as in western societies strong hierarchical  structures often result in a â€Å"top-down† leadership approach but can be explained through high uncertainly avoidance collecting input and consensus from all parties involved before decisions are made. Even more so, the concepts of â€Å"wa† (maintaining social relationships) and â€Å"kao† (maintaining â€Å"face†) actually require the involvement of subordinates in the decision making process and the preservation of harmony rendering western leader contingent punishment behaviour inappropriate. It is here where Japanese leadership style diverts extensively from its UK (Anglo-Saxon) counterpart where public scrutinising is part of daily leadership practices reflecting a competitive and individualistic culture driven by short-term financial objectives with high-risk acceptance. Due to the collectivist environment and extensive future planning, Japanese managers on the other hand, do not view themselves as risk takers, despite this characteristic often being attributed to charismatic leaders (Bass, 1985). This is reflected in Japan’s extremely high uncertainty avoidance score and is further supported by strong long-term orientation valuing prevailing face and harmony. Unsurprisingly, life-long employment is desired, supplemented b continued job rotation aimed at developing employees. As a result leaders and subordinates enter into long and close relationships hardly ever interrupted contrasting the UK’s â€Å"burn out† environment fostering high staff turnover. Unlike in the UK, Japanese business leaders look for generalist employees capable of working in multiple levels of the organisation reflecting a society placing less value upon specialists than western cultures. Overall, Japanese leaders focus upon collective (not individual) responsibility (Hayashi, 1988) and group harmony maintenance is usually considered more important than profitability and overall productivity (Bass, 1990). Nevertheless, also Japanese leaders have to drive performance resulting in somewhat of a trade-off situation between performance and collectivist harmony maintenance. According to the performance-maintenance theory (Misumi, 1990), Japanese leaders have to chose between goal achievement and the continuation of the group, preferably combining high levels of both (Misumi, 1995). If this is achieved, such supportive or  participative leadership styles (Ouchi, 1981) are said to result in â€Å"higher levels of motivation, delegation of decision-making, commitment, and intrinsic job satisfaction† (Keys and Miller, 1982, p. 6). This appears to be in line with the currently preferred leadership style in the UK. However, one should not forget that unlike the Japanese working environment, the UK has been subject to great inward as well as outward FDI flows resulting in a blending of many different leadership approaches. As such arguably UK leaders would find it easier to adapt to Japanese principles than Japanese leaders. This is due to the western â€Å"farce† of collectivist team working for individualistic goals and the limited respect paid to status differences. While Hofstede’s framework helps to understand the leadership differences between the two countries if fails to explain some factors. So for examples does high Japanese power distance explain hierarchical structures and respect to superiors but the theoretical assumptions of complete centralisation of power, low emphasis on developing the workforce and autocratic top-down contact initiation (Hofstede, 1991) do not fully reflect the Japanese working environment. On this note one should not forget that Hofstede’s framework is not free of criticism and arguably is outdated, limited in scope of methodology and measurement (Dorfman and Howell, 1988; Roberts and Boyciligiller, 1984) and only reflects a blend of organisational (IBM) culture and national cultures (Hunt, 1983; Robinson, 1983). As such it is no surprise that other studies such as the GLOBE project have found differing or even contradictory results for similar cultural dimensions. How to cite The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles, Essays The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles Free Essays With globalisation and related intensification of trade and commerce effective leadership has become indispensable in the business world. Where traditionally the business leader took the role of commanding â€Å"the troops† towards effectiveness and efficiency this has changed dramatically over the last decades. The service industry rise, knowledge management trends, increased workforce diversity combined with international trading and global sourcing of talent, has considerably reshaped the role of the leader in the contemporary organisation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles or any similar topic only for you Order Now Numerous firms are in global alliances depending upon flexibility/adaptability to local markets, requiring their managers to possess appropriate leadership styles to cope effectively with different value systems and cultures (Fahy, 2002; Coviello et al. , 1998). 2Arguably, the flattening of hierarchical structures has also contributed to this reshaping process as traditional sources of authority, upon which leaders have built on for years, have been diminished. Combined with the rise of new trading powers such as the â€Å"Asian Dragon†, business leaders, especially in international MNEs do not only face domestic multiculturalism and diversity but are also increasingly expatriated. Consequently completely new cultural pitfalls and challenges are faced requiring understanding of cultural values as well as quick cultural adaptation to transfer domestic leadership abilities into foreign markets. Combined with steadily rising competitive pressures, the contemporary business leader in a role not easily filled. Despite leadership being a universal concept (Bass, 1990), with most literature anchored in the (individualistically oriented) US, it has been questioned to what extend western leadership styles are cross-culturally transferable (Dorfman, 2003). Resultantly, debate has sparked over how far leadership is culturally contingent, if universal leadership qualities and tactics exist and what the explanatory variables are (Scandura Dorfman, 2004). This assignment aims at contributing towards this debate by exploring leadership disparity and possible congruence between the UK and Japan using academic measurement of national culture; Hofstede’s framework respectively. The next section will give an overview over the concept of leadership followed by an in-depth cultural comparison and concluding section. 4The term leadership incorporates some elements of controversy over its meaning and practices. Different cultural gist or terminology or in cross-cultural contexts makes a universal definition difficult (Yukl, 2002). This seems unsurprising as the understandings and expectations of authority roles differ between cultures. Nevertheless, despite cultural differences the majority of leadership definitions reflect some basic elements these manly being â€Å"group†, â€Å"influence† and â€Å"goal† (Bryman, 1992). Keeping this in mind, leadership can be seen as the â€Å"process of influencing others towards achieving some kind of desired outcome. † (De Jong Den Hartog, 2007, p. 44) or bluntly spoken â€Å"leadership is the ability to get [people] to do what they don’t like to do and like it† Whilst this is a very basic attempt of a definition it allows for easier application in a cross-cultural context and highlights an important point: In order to lead one needs followers (Drucker, 2007). It is here where the inseparable link to power emerges whereby the power of leaders is largely dependent upon the perception of others (Hollander Julian, 1969; Maurer Lord, 1991; Pfeffer, 1977) but nevertheless forms the basis of leadership authority. It appears that only effective use of this power, combined with â€Å"leading by example† (Pfeffer, 1981) will result in positive and proactive guidance fostering creativity, innovation, commitment and long term organisational development. 6However, this is questionable and it seems that far too often in academic literature the terms â€Å"manager† and â€Å"leader† are merged giving a blurred picture of what each role actually entails. Readers should be reminded that leaders, unlike managers, do not have to rely on forms of power to influence subordinates, often actually relinquishing formal authoritarian control. This is due to the idea that to lead is to have followers, and following is always a voluntary activity. Nevertheless, it can be argued that even leaders need some foundation of authority; may it only be their charisma (Weber, 1968). This has been manifested in the participative, charismatic or transformative styles of leadership (Den Hartog Koopman, 2001) as oppose to the transactional style more related to operational, task focused managers. Especially in western economies with predominant service industries, innovation and knowledge management, the former have been the focal point in recent years as autocratic leadership styles do no longer seem sufficient to extract the full potential of an increasingly knowledgeable, highly skilled and demanding workforce. Such, arguably â€Å"softer† approaches fostering employee involvement and participation have nevertheless been proven to result in increased organisational performance (Bass, 1996; 1997; House Shamir, 1993) and are arguably more â€Å"ideal† forms of organisational leadership (Bass Avolio, 1989). This might be applicable to western societies yet a cross-cultural generalisation might be prejudiced and the influence of personal values and cultural influences upon leadership styles should not be ignored (Byrne Bradley, 2007). Rather, culture, an essential component of which is personal values (Kroeber, 1952; Kluckhohm, 1949), is to be seen at a centre stage when analysing leadership differences (George et al. , 1998; Nakata Sivakumar, 1996; Steenkamp et al. , 1999; Cadogan et al. 2001), as t is â€Å"the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another† (Hofstede, 1980, p.260) and shape leadership preferences. Culture hereby should not be limited to national culture but has to be extended to incorporating organisational as well as political culture (Schein, 1985), the latter two arguably being extensively shaped by the former. Democratic or authoritarian political systems, national values regarding sex differences and ethical behaviour as well as organisational attitudes towards factors such as centralisation and work attitude, undoubtedly influence leadership styles. Not only will such factors shape leadership approaches, but with regard to cultural differences these will often even stand in conflict to each other. Consequently domestically implemented leadership approaches might not be applicable in other cultural settings and render ineffective in maintaining firm sustained competitive advantage and superior international performance (Kimber, 1997; Jackson and Aycan, 2001; Pfeffer, 2002). The next section will investigate the effect of cultural values upon leadership styles in detail using the U and Japan as examples. 9British leadership style has often been described as more casual in nature fostering teamwork and seeking group consensus (Lewis, 2001). As such, a more participative leadership style is predominant reflecting flatter hierarchical structures in UK organisations. So, hierarchical structures not primarily seem as means to establish authority structures (Laurent, 1983) but more as core administrative frameworks. This according to Hofstede (2001), is a reflection of the UK’s low association to Power Distance. Essentially, subordinates do not attribute much to position and title and leaders must â€Å"embody a collective will and take personal responsibility for it while continuing to communicate and co-operate with the team† (Mole, 1990, p. 105). Unsurprisingly, networking capability and people management skills are highly valued in the UK (Stewart et al. 1994) as leadership qualities. Nevertheless, this (collectivist) team and people orientation is mainly seem as a path towards achieving organisational targets and innovation assuring individuals in team settings aggregate knowledge that has strategic relevance to the organisation (Miller Morris, 1999). As such transformational leadership attitudes (Burns, 1978) can be seen where leaders are to create conditions under which subordinates devotedly contribute to the organisation yet this is done primarily through a strategic lens. (McCarthy, 2005). Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon system of shareholder satisfaction drives leaders towards task orientation often combined with a short-term outlook. As such quick, short-term organisational (financial) success is often more valued than long-term organisational success and relationship building, reflecting according to Hofstede, a culture of highly short term orientation and low uncertainty avoidance. Essentially, risks are seen as part of daily business practice and leadership approaches reflect that subordinates are given opportunity to implement potentially rewarding, but high risk, strategies. This shows that, despite team orientation and a one might say more relaxed, friendly and diplomatic leadership style, the British cannot deny their American leadership style influence, fostering structured individualism, speed and drive (Lewis, 2001). Falsely, m any authors seem to ignore this connection, even so influences of hire and fire mentality and the creating of specialist roles underlining a core individualistic attitude are undeniable reflecting British national, and interlinked to that, legal and organisational culture. Such individualistic attitude constantly resurfaces in leadership styles often portrayed through individual target setting, remuneration practices and shorter employment contracts. Employees do not look for lifetime employment and a steady career in one company resultantly British leaders are more reluctant to invest heavily in the training and education of subordinates (Schneider Littrell, 2003). This continues to the often actively sought after and purposely created assertive and competitive environment amongst colleagues or departments reflecting a relatively high masculine attitude as Hofstede’s culture scale clearly outlines. While these attributes sketch general aspects of British leadership, styles will vary between organisations, industries and individuals. Service- or RD intensive industries for example, will follow a more Theory Y (McGregor, 1960) approach fostering employee involvement and empowerment. Leadership on traditional manufacturing industries on the other hand due to their reliance on productivity and output combined with an often repetitive working atmosphere, might take a more Theory X attitude. In contrast to the UK, Japanese leadership, like many Asian countries, is grounded in Confucian principles (Redding, 1990; Tan, 1986) and despite rising western influences, strong Confucian traits believing in moral, interpersonal relationships/loyalties, education and hard work still lurk beneath the surface (Lewis, 2001). Especially â€Å"taking the family as a model for society at large, Confucianism is basically authoritarian and stresses hierarchical and status differences† (Selmer, 2001, p.8). As such, through its vertically orientated hierarchies and rigid organisation (Chen, 1995) one would expect Japan to score higher than the UK in Hofstede’s power distance index, and so indeed it does. This offers leaders with traditional and legitimate power bases however, surprisingly not resulting in autocratic leadership styles as one would expect, but far more the association of assertiveness-authority and reason tactics (Schmidt Yeh, 1992). As such, Japanese leadership style rewards subordinate respect and obedience with highly paternalistic attitudes, expressed by mendou: â€Å"I think about your, I will take care of you† (Dorfman et al. 1997). Consequently, the Japanese leadership culture, despite placing emphasising hierarchy and status differences requiring full subordinate obedience, expects helping and caring for followers and being involved in their personal lives (Whitehall Takezawa, 1968; Bass et al.1979). As a result the most powerful force of the Japanese leader is not autocracy but charisma combined with intrinsic rather than extrinsic (materialistic) reward mechanisms often predominant in the UK: bonuses, on-target-earnings, etc. (Maslow, 1943, 1954). This seems surprising considering the high masculine score, which, from a western perspective would result in autocratic, top down, assertive, tough and focused on material success (Hofstede, 1998) leadership. It is here where Hofstede’s framework seems to only partly explain the Japanese culture and low individualism but high masculinity and power distance stand in conflict with each other. 14Additionally, in such an environment more focus towards ascription rather than achievement would be expected (Trompenaars Hampden-Turner, 1997, 2000). Nevertheless, the contrary appears in the Japanese context with leaders having to possess superior, often specific, (hard) knowledge supplemented by strong educational backgrounds (Nestler, 2008). Here another disparity to UK leadership emerges, where despite educational background being important for initial work placement, greater focus upon (soft) â€Å"people skills† and strategic directive is desired and ascription of leadership positions remains (Hampden-Turner Trompenaars, 1994). 15The collectivist principles shape Japanese leadership style dramatically, requiring group consensus and decision-making despite extremely high masculinity and higher power distance. Essentially a â€Å"bottom-up† (ringsho) process of decision-making is chosen (Wu, 2006) with the leader granting independent decision making to the group generally letting subordinates use their own approaches to achieve overall collectivist objectives (Dorfman et al. 1997). This is surprising, as in western societies strong hierarchical structures often result in a â€Å"top-down† leadership approach but can be explained through high uncertainly avoidance collecting input and consensus from all parties involved before decisions are made. Even more so, the concepts of â€Å"wa† (maintaining social relationships) and â€Å"kao† (maintaining â€Å"face†) actually require the involvement of subordinates in the decision making process and the preservation of harmony rendering western leader contingent punishment behaviour inappropriate. It is here where Japanese leadership style diverts extensively from its UK (Anglo-Saxon) counterpart where public scrutinising is part of daily leadership practices reflecting a competitive and individualistic culture driven by short-term financial objectives with high-risk acceptance. Due to the collectivist environment and extensive future planning, Japanese managers on the other hand, do not view themselves as risk takers, despite this characteristic often being attributed to charismatic leaders (Bass, 1985). This is reflected in Japan’s extremely high uncertainty avoidance score and is further supported by strong long-term orientation valuing prevailing face and harmony. Unsurprisingly, life-long employment is desired, supplemented b continued job rotation aimed at developing employees. As a result leaders and subordinates enter into long and close relationships hardly ever interrupted contrasting the UK’s â€Å"burn out† environment fostering high staff turnover. Unlike in the UK, Japanese business leaders look for generalist employees capable of working in multiple levels of the organisation reflecting a society placing less value upon specialists than western cultures. 17Overall, Japanese leaders focus upon collective (not individual) responsibility (Hayashi, 1988) and group harmony maintenance is usually considered more important than profitability and overall productivity (Bass, 1990). Nevertheless, also Japanese leaders have to drive performance resulting in somewhat of a trade-off situation between performance and collectivist harmony maintenance. According to the performance-maintenance theory (Misumi, 1990), Japanese leaders have to chose between goal achievement and the continuation of the group, preferably combining high levels of both (Misumi, 1995). If this is achieved, such supportive or participative leadership styles (Ouchi, 1981) are said to result in â€Å"higher levels of motivation, delegation of decision-making, commitment, and intrinsic job satisfaction† (Keys and Miller, 1982, p.6). This appears to be in line with the currently preferred leadership style in the UK. However, one should not forget that unlike the Japanese working environment, the UK has been subject to great inward as well as outward FDI flows resulting in a blending of many different leadership approaches. As such arguably UK leaders would find it easier to adapt to Japanese principles than Japanese leaders. This is due to the western â€Å"farce† of collectivist team working for individualistic goals and the limited respect paid to status differences. While Hofstede’s framework helps to understand the leadership differences between the two countries if fails to explain some factors. So for examples does high Japanese power distance explain hierarchical structures and respect to superiors but the theoretical assumptions of complete centralisation of power, low emphasis on developing the workforce and autocratic top-down contact initiation (Hofstede, 1991) do not fully reflect the Japanese working environment. On this note one should not forget that Hofstede’s framework is not free of criticism and arguably is outdated, limited in scope of methodology and measurement (Dorfman and Howell, 1988; Roberts and Boyciligiller, 1984) and only reflects a blend of organisational (IBM) culture and national cultures (Hunt, 1983; Robinson, 1983). As such it is no surprise that other studies such as the GLOBE project have found differing or even contradictory results for similar cultural dimensions. How to cite The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles, Essays

Working Diversity in ABC Pty Ltd-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Working Diversity in ABC Pty Ltd. Answer: Diversity and Inclusion Strategy Policy Diversity is age, gender, sexual orientation, education, religion, and ethnicity is present in the workplace is important and relevant for the development of the organization. This is a broad term to emphasize the people and groups for the sake of humanity and building up the workplace environment (Kulik 2014). This kind of workplace environment helps to enhance the objectives of the employees and deliver more sound service to the customers. Inclusion processing in terms of the logistic department is over emphasizing on the supply chain management and delivers goods to the people. People are sending their material for the urgent delivery basis, so private logistic companies have taken a huge charge form the customers (Richards and Bergin 2014). Thus, organization prime target will be delivering the material to the customer as soon as possible. In case of problem-solving the situation, the creative and innovative practice of organization has been controlled by the cultural inclusion p olicy of the organization (O'Connor, Derudder and Witlox 2016). Logistic business is accessed in globally thus their cultural perspective must be strong to encompass social, political and economic value. An inclusive environment supports diversity in the workplace and enables the attitude, behavior, and skill to make more work efficiency in cross-cultural situations. Diversity in the workplace also maintains the equal opportunity for the employees and that also showcase the anti-discrimination legislation for each employee of the organization. Inclusion in the workplace has provided the societal ideology and provides the special education and opportunities for the employees for the better outcome (Correll, Suzuki and Martens 2017). In the diversified situation of the company, employees background and dealing manner of their behavioral change impacted over the compressive adjustment of their innovation and finding. Policy Number FA 12456379 Key terms referred to the policy The key terms related to the organization policy are 1. Customer attention provisions article 7.2 in section permitted legal responsibility. The company has to maintain some legal legislation and obligations that imposed from the government. They are under some contract thus their legal period has served that contract period only. 2. Price and Payment option including the issues of value added tax with product service and conditions. There are different prototypes are also present for the help of customers. Under the Late Payment of Commercial Debts Act 1998 the company can implement some rules and regulations on pricing. There are different modes of payment and the company has their view over it. Some of the customers have done their payment by cheque and some by cash, thus different payment module brings different act or legislation in the company (Correll, Suzuki and Martens 2017). 3. Delivery of the product and the transportation methods come under the general process where custo mer demand is the concern matter for the company. For this reason, their logistic department needs to be strong to deliver the product at the right time. Legislation and policy need to be imposed for his reason. Risk and retention of the company are providing the sustainable condition of the company in this competitive market. Under the Insolvency Act, 1986 companies are retaining their existence in this competitive market. There are certain liabilities of the organization in respect of product analysis, customer handling and legislation. The organization has Anti-corruption policy which is activated for imposing the zero-tolerance approach in the company. On the other hand, the company has some anti-corruption policy and they have done it in an ethical way (Kulik 2014). The company has to create a boar of executives those will formulate the anti-corruption system in the office. The privacy policy is also incorporated in the company for the customers and employees so that no one can trespass any employees or customers personal life. So mitigating the violation of personnel management is the ultimate application of this policy. Link to Quality Assurance Principles Australian legislation encourages and endorses the additional principle in an organization. The regulators are Australian Securities and Investment Commission AUSTRAC (for AML), ATO (for FATCA and CRS) and theAustralian Prudential Regulation Authority(APRA). These are the demonstrated legislation that company has used for their maintenance and security. Risk management, licensing, compliance management system all these are making a large impact on the legislation and acts. Policy Statement The principle of the policy is: Make sure that employees and customers are treated rightfully and with a stage of communal admiration. Mitigate the Prejudices and biases regarding the community issue. Build up a variety of practices and strategy that enthusiastically neutralize partiality or chauvinism. Promotion of inclusive practices in the organization. The services surroundings treat and compliments community uniformly regardless of sex, period, socio-economic position, competition, speech, beliefs, supplementary requirements, and relations construction or way of life (Kulik 2014). There are some occupational Health and safety act that ensure surroundings support and mental welfare. Rationale Logistic companies have some code of ethics that conducted by the government. The services include the philosophy statement that encompasses the right of the deliverance of logistic company. The diversity policy in the organization is relevant as the company has to improve their position in the competitive market and that provide the selecting services and manner of the company. Strategies and practices Strategic objectives are the supporting pillars of the organization that helps to understand the organizational aim and objectives for the future outcome. In some cases, objectives are being set and employees have to work over it or in the other hand where strategic change is needed for the betterment of the organization. As mentioned by Piecyk and Bjrklund (2015) ensuring the goodwill of the organization all the strategic changes have been implemented. In case of ABC Pty Ltd, logistic organizations have some particular stakeholders and management in the supply chain that has set the objectives for the betterment of the organization policies and legislation (Baldacchino, Ferreira and Costa 2013). There are some strategic changes that need to be implemented for setting the objectives of the organization. Assortment Employees diverse mannerism is important and relevant for the workplace to improve the management and quality (Myatt et al. 2015). The innovative mannerism of every employee helps the company to strict in the best plan and ensures the best productivity in respect of the company.Inclusion Promotion of the employees through the development is the prime task of inclusion process. Innovation, creativity all these are an important approach to promote the organization skill in the better perspective (O'Connor, Derudder and Witlox 2016). Leadership and outcome of the leadership are important as the organizational influence in the business stretch is depending on that innovative style of ornamenting the business.Interactions Communications is the best process to manage the adverse situation and maintain the inclusion initiatives for the transparent business process. In logistic business, the communication process is very important and familiar for the employees as they have to interact with the customer when they attaining any customer for the receiving or delivering purpose (Starostka-Patyk, Tomski and Zawada 2015). Communication process helps to build a relationship with the customers and providing a healthy relationship with the company. Sometimes interaction in between employees in the organization invents some creative or innovative strategy to develop the organization output.Responsibility Organization has some liability to continue good run in the competitive market. For the sustainable condition of the organization responsibilities of the organization to hold the goals and objectives of the organization are important. Employees also have some responsibilities to cover o that organization level has sustained (Brindley 2017). Divisibility and mitigating the problems of the organization is the key responsibility of the management. Employees Induction In the recruitment, process organization has to choose the right strategy to get a competitive advantage in this globalized market. Employees must be open-minded so that they can accept any community or religion. On the other hand, employees must know about the establishment of the company. Every employee has to read the services values announcement and Diversity and Equity Policy so that they can know the diverse outcome of the company and accustomed through the process. HR Practices: Selection and Recruitment There is equivalent chance legislation defense the civil rights of individuals during the employment and assortment of recruits. Services are advised that their strategy and actions should reproduce the pertinent central, state or terrain legislation (Correll, Suzuki and Martens 2017). For the selecting criteria, human resource department has taken extra initiation as these are the people who work together thus their mindset about the diversity in the workplace must be clear and ethical so that adverse consequences can be handled. HR Practices: Performance Management Human resource team has monitored the performance of the employees so at the time of recruitment they have to choose the right people who can deliver their best for the organization. For the better performance organization has to invite all the communities people so that diverse accumulation of behavior and skill prevailed in the organization (Chin and Tat 2015). Organization tradition, a way of working and productivity must improve by the effective liveliness of those employees. Non- compliance of Diversity and Equity Policy Non-compliance and equity policy of the company have focused on the mitigation of prejudices. If there is any discrepancy happens then the employee can complain in Complain department of the organization (Kulik 2014). Services the company has provided for the development of the company must enrich by the equity policy implemented by the organization and that enhances the product quality and level. Anti-bullying practices Bullying is frequently the behavior from those individuals who are detrimental or partial alongside others. The organization may come to a decision to tackle the concern of place of work maltreatment and by which process that gets threaten to other, overwhelmed, derisory or unconfident in the place of work: in relation to assortment and enclosure issues. Communication with stakeholders Use of creativity in logistics is the touch of improving manner that innovates the new way of proceeding and mitigate the negative consequences as well. In the logistic department, the lower level hierarchy must be improved in a suitable manner so that a touch of innovation is always presented over there. Implement of the fast running vehicle and section wise material deliverance may strengthen the distribution policy and that impacted over the delivery process. Customers will get their product soon within the provided timeline (O'Connor, Derudder and Witlox 2016). Innovativeness in maintaining the manpower in the workplace is also important as the experience employees can deal the process with the customers in an easy way on the other hand novice employees are not dealing with proper manner and that also accused by the system. Some new devices may be implemented so that logistic company can monitoring their employees where they are and covering their route so that employees can work in an ethical manner and do not get any kind of leisure in between the job expect the break time. Effective technological assistance in logistic business and alternative device maintenance to monitoring the employees is the key finding that organization must include in their ideas (Abele, Boltze and Pfohl 2017). Training and monitoring program for the employees is the key issue that enhances the developmental curriculum of the organization. In case of logistic customer management and proving, service is the sustainable confidence of the organization that allocates more emphasizes in between employees (Baldacchino, Ferreira and Costa 2013). Leadership Outcome Leadership outcome is the key issue that incorporates the executive level of managing and setting up the goal and objectives to reach the better future. Leaders are always having the eye of viewing the future so their implemented strategic change or invention creates a new dimension for the organization. In the logistic department experience and man management is the ultimate issue that prevents obstacles and smoothes the path of success. Leaders are evolved by the process and of maintaining the divisive people (Gotsis and Kortezi 2015). Proper planning and executive attachment in the corporate event where leaders are effectively implementing certain strategy so that company can ensure their success strike. However most of the cases there is some adverse situation when an organization has not met any goal, a good leader come up on that occasion and save the organization by doing some effective implementation (Wood and Wilberger 2015). In the provided company ABC Pty Ltd leadership ev olve and diversity is presented in the workplace scenario. Measuring tools The service may additional state tools that help out in measuring the usefulness of the strategy. Link to other policies There are some following policies that impacted over the other case and piercing to a unique direction. Child protection. Healthy eating. Employment of child care services. Enhancement of the moral of the employees. Individual health needs Occupational health and safety. Grievances and complaints management References Abele, E., Boltze, M. and Pfohl, H.C., 2017. Interdisciplinary Research in Production, Logistics and Traffic: Introduction to Dynamo PLV and Overview of the Book. InDynamic and Seamless Integration of Production, Logistics and Traffic(pp. 1-9). Springer International Publishing. Baldacchino, G., Ferreira, D. and Costa, E., 2013. Competing Notions of Diversity in Archipelago Tourism: Transport Logistics, Official Rhetoric and Inter-Island Rivalry in the Azores.Island Studies Journal,8(1). Brindley, C. ed., 2017.Supply chain risk. Taylor Francis. Carvalho, M.S., Magalhaes, D.S., Varela, M.L., Sa, J.O. and Gonalves, I., 2016. Definition of a collaborative working model to the logistics area using design for Six Sigma.International Journal of Quality Reliability Management,33(4), pp.465-475. Chin, T.A. and Tat, H.H., 2015. Does gender diversity moderate the relationship between supply chain management practice and performance in the electronic manufacturing services industry?.International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications,18(1), pp.35-45. Correll, D.H., Suzuki, Y. and Martens, B.J., 2017. The diversity-logistics hypothesis: how animals and manufacturers stand to reduce inbound logistics and inventory costs through diversity.Progress in Industrial Ecology, an International Journal,11(1), pp.79-96. Gotsis, G. and Kortezi, Z., 2015. Workplace Diversity: A Resource or a Source of Conflict?. InCritical studies in diversity management literature(pp. 1-12). Springer Netherlands. Kulik, C.T., 2014. Working below and above the line: The researchpractice gap in diversity management.Human Resource Management Journal,24(2), pp.129-144. Myatt, P., Worthy, P., Green, M., Lawrie, G., Pedwell, R., Wang, J., Zimbardi, K. and Rowland, S., 2015. ALURE Implementers Checklist: Design and Logistics. O'Connor, K., Derudder, B. and Witlox, F., 2016. Logistics services: Global functions and global cities.Growth and Change,47(4), pp.481-496. Piecyk, M.I. and Bjrklund, M., 2015. Logistics service providers and corporate social responsibility: sustainability reporting in the logistics industry.International Journal of Physical Distribution Logistics Management,45(5), pp.459-485. Ramos, T.R.P., Gomes, M.I. and Barbosa-Pvoa, A.P., 2014. Planning a sustainable reverse logistics system: Balancing costs with environmental and social concerns.Omega,48, pp.60-74. Richards, P. and Bergin, A.E., 2014. Handbook of psychotherapy and religious diversity. Starostka-Patyk, M., Tomski, P. and Zawada, M., 2015. Diversity management as a part of corporate social responsibility policy.Procedia Computer Science,65, pp.1038-1045. Timm, I.J., Woelk, P.O., Knirsch, P., Tnshoff, H.K. and Herzog, O., 2016. Flexible Mass Customisation: Managing Its Information Logistics Using Adaptive Cooperative Multi-agent Systems. InDevelopments in Logistics and Supply Chain Management(pp. 203-211). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Wood, V.R. and Wilberger, J.S., 2015. Globalization, cultural diversity and organizational commitment: Theoretical underpinnings.World,6(2), pp.154-171.